Appendix 1 -Yanomami languages in Brazil

The term Yanomami has been used generically in the literature to refer to the cultural and territorial complex that makes up this indigenous group. Linguistically the term describes a family of four languages subdivided into various dialects.

The division of the Yanomami complex into four languages was first proposed thirty years ago by Migliazza (1972), with the possibility of a further fifth (poorly known) language covering the Ajarani, Apiaú and lower Mucajaí rivers. Thus, in Brazil, we have:

1. Yanomam (Rio Uraricoera, Parima, Upper Mucajaí, Catrimani, Toototobi)

2. Yanomam«(Rio Demini, Aracá, Padauiri, Cauaboris)

3. Ninam or Yanam (Rio Uraricaá, Middle Mucajaí)

4. San«ma(Rio Auaris)

A more recent study (Ramirez 1994) slightly modified this system in the folowing manner:

· Yanomam and Yanomam« become two "super-dialects" (Eastern and Western) of the same language ("division Y")

· Ninam-Yanam and San«ma remain classified as separate languages ("division N" and "division S")

· The language spoken in the Ajarani, Apiaú, Lower Mucajaí and Middle Catrimani (Igarapé do Castanho and Rio Pacu) is recognised as a fourth language ("division A").

Each of these languages is subdivided into dialects with distinct phonological, lexicological and morpho-syntactial differences. Eastern Yanomami (Migliazza’s Yanomam), for example, has distinct dialects a) in the region of the Rio Catrimani and Rio Toototobi, b) on the Upper Mucajaí (Xitei, Homoxi, Paapiú) and the Upper Catrimani, and c) in the region of Surucucus. It is generally designated by Yanomami speakers as Yanomae t^hëã (Yanomae language).

Yanomae (Eastern Yanomami) sounds and writing

Vowels

The Yanomae language has seven vowels appearing in the table below, arranged according to the oral positions used to express them:

	anterior	central	posterior
		(arredondada)
high/closed	i	«	u
médium	e	ë	o
low/open	a

Five of these vowels are common to English, and the only ones that may be difficult to pronounce are « e ë . The first of these sounds somewhere between the letters i and u. To pronounce «, begin by pronouncing i and immediately afterwards u. At the same time, the lips remain extended and the body of the tongue is pressed against the missle of the palate. To pronounce ë, begin with an e and, soon afterwards, o. The sound of the ë lies somewhere between these two vowels. The lips remain relaxed and unrounded, and the tongue is loose.

All seven of these vowels may be nasalised. This is represented in writing by placing a til on top of the vowel, as in hxomou (to whistle). The vowels may also be elongated, i.e. extended in duratio. This is representing by doubling of the vowel in the written form, e.g. xaari (straight) and pee nahe (tobacco).

The following examples demonstrate the occurrence of vowels in the Yanomae language:

i	imi	finger
e	here	wet
«	p«t«	full
ë	ëpëhë	soft
a	aka	language
u	kuyuhu	curved
o	koro	underside, rear

The consonants

The Yanomae language has 13 consonants as shown in the table below, arranged according to the positions of the mouth used to express them:

	Bilabial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Occlusive
Simple	p	t		k
Aspirated		t^h
Fricative	hw	s	x	h
Vibrative		r
Nasal	m	n
Semivowels	w		y

The simple occlusives are represented by the letters p, t and k. The letters p and t are often pronounced as their respective counterparts b and d, without changing the meaning of the word. The occlusive k is always pronounced as such.

The aspirated occlusive t^h is pronounced as t with an additional exhalation of air. The contrast between t and t^h can be seen in the words t^ha« (to do) and ta« (to see). We consider t^h here as a phonetic unit, as in the educational grammars of Borgman (1976, 1990) for the San«ma and Lizot (1995) for the Western Yanomami. However, it should be noted that in Ramirez’s recent work on Western Yanomami (Ramirez, 1994), this sound is presented as a sequence of the phonemes t and h.

The fricatives are represented by the letters s, x and h. These do not present difficulties for English speakers. They are basically similar to the sounds s for sock and sh for shoot and h for hospital. In addition to h there also exists the phoneme hw. According to Ramirez (1994: 35-36) this is a residual phoneme with a limited distribution (never accompanied by i, o or u). It is specific to the Yanomae dialect of the Alto Catrimani (Posto Demini, rio Lobo d’Almada e rio Jundiá villages) and corresponds to the f phoneme in the Surucucus region. Apart from this difference, all the other phonetic qualities described here are the same in the other regions where Yanomae is spoken: Toototobi, Catrimani, Paapiú, Xitei, Homoxi, Palimiú, etc.

The vibrative r is pronounced in the same way as in the English caravan. This may sometimes be found to be pronounced as the lateral l. It is also very similar to n when it occurs alongside a nasalised vowel. For example, the pronunciation of r is the same as n after õ: mõri = mõni (one, almost).

The nasals, m and n, are basically the same as in the English match and nasal.

The semivowels w and y are pronounced as vowels, but have a short duration like consonants and occur before or following a vowel. The sound of w is the same as in the English water y the same as in kayak.

The following examples demonstrate occurrences of consonants in Yanomae:

p	poko	arm
t	totihi	good
k	koa«	to drink
t^h	t^hoko	cough
s	s«k«	skin
x	x«k«	intestines
h	hutu	garden
hw	hwama	guest
r	rape	long
m	mamo	eye
n	nak«	teeth
w	waªsipë	small
y	yopi	hot

Syllables

The most common syllable consists of a consonant and a vowel as, for example, in wa-k« (fire). Other types of syllables also occur such as V-CV in a-ra (macaw), CVV in puu (honey) or ou CCVV in pree (big).

There are, however, also more complex combinations of vowels such as:

VV	pë«	to feel unwell or sick
VVV	man«a«	to cut
VVV	Aiamori	spirit of war and courage
VVVV	pra«a«	Introductory dance in reahu festival

In addition, certain consonant groupings occur. For example:

hr	hrake	slippery
	hrami	spicy
	hr«k«	loin
	tuhra«	to vomit
kr	kraiwa	white
	krea«	to break
	kr«r«ra«	to grate, plane
	takri	piranha
pr	pree	big
	prika	pepper
	prohe	loose
	prõõ	fly